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Gilman, E. L., Ellison, J., Duke, N. C., & Field, C. (2008). Threats to mangroves from climate change and adaptation options: A review. Aquatic Botany, 89(2), 237-250.
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Global
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Decreased rainfall and increased evaporation will increase salinity, decreasing net primary productivity, growth and seedling survival, altering competition between mangrove species, decreasing the diversity of mangrove zones, causing a notable reduction in mangrove area due to the conversion of upper tidal zones to hypersaline flats.
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Eliminate non-climate stresses on mangroves (e.g. filling, conversion for aquaculture, pollution) in order to augment overall ecosystem health, in part, to reduce mangrove vulnerability to and increase resilience to stresses from climate change. Ensure representation, replication and refugia through a system of protected area networks, and establish regional monitoring systems.
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